Colonial Policies on Land Alienation

 

Question: Colonial Policies on Land Alienation

Colonial policies on land alienation in India represented a systematic mechanism through which British authorities transferred land ownership from indigenous cultivators to non-agricultural classes, exacerbating social inequalities and fueling resistance movements across the subcontinent. Emerging in the late 18th century as the East India Company consolidated power, these policies were designed to maximize revenue extraction while securing loyalty from intermediaries, often at the expense of peasants and tribal communities. Key legislations, shaped by figures like Lord Cornwallis and later administrators, transformed traditional land tenures into commodified assets, leading to widespread dispossession that persisted into the 20th century. This era, from the Permanent Settlement of 1793 to acts like the Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1900, not only altered agrarian structures but also sowed seeds of economic distress and political unrest. In conclusion, these policies entrenched colonial exploitation, displacing millions and laying the groundwork for postcolonial land reforms, though their legacies of inequality continue to influence India's rural landscape.

Origins and Early Policies                          www.osmanian.com

The roots of land alienation policies trace back to the mid-18th century when the British East India Company, following victories like the Battle of Plassey in 1757 under Robert Clive, gained diwani rights over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa in 1765 from Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. This granted revenue collection powers, prompting experiments in land administration to stabilize income amid fluctuating harvests. Initial approaches involved farming out revenues to contractors, but corruption and peasant exploitation led to reforms. Lord Cornwallis, Governor-General from 1786 to 1793, introduced the Permanent Settlement in 1793, fixing land revenues in perpetuity with zamindars, hereditary landlords expected to invest in agriculture. However, this policy alienated land from ryots, actual cultivators, as zamindars, often absentee and non-agricultural, rack-rented tenants to meet demands, causing defaults and auctions. By 1830, over 50 percent of Bengal's zamindari estates had changed hands, transferring land to urban merchants and moneylenders, displacing traditional owners. In Madras Presidency, Thomas Munro, Collector from 1800, implemented the Ryotwari system in 1820, recognizing individual peasants as proprietors, but high assessments led to indebtedness and sales to outsiders. Similarly, in Bombay, the Mahalwari system from 1822 under Holt Mackenzie grouped villages for collective revenue, but village headmen often colluded with moneylenders, facilitating alienation.

Expansion in the 19th Century

As British control expanded post-1818 defeat of Marathas and 1849 annexation of Punjab under Lord Dalhousie, land policies adapted to new territories, intensifying alienation. In Punjab, initial summaries settlements from 1849 favored cultivators, but the 1850s introduction of cash rents and legal frameworks allowed moneylenders, mainly from trading castes, to foreclose on debts. By 1870, non-agriculturists held 20 percent of land, rising to 40 percent by 1890, displacing Jat and Rajput farmers. The Deccan Riots of 1875 in Maharashtra highlighted resistance to alienation under the Bombay Revenue Code of 1879, where sahukars acquired ryot lands through mortgages. In Oudh, annexed in 1856, the Taluqdari system protected intermediaries but alienated sub-tenants, leading to the 1857 Revolt partly fueled by dispossessed peasants. Tribal areas suffered acutely; in Chotanagpur, the 1832 Kol Rebellion protested land transfers to outsiders under Bengal Regulation XIII of 1833. The Santhal Hul of 1855, led by Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, targeted zamindars who alienated hul lands post-1793 Settlement extension. Central India's Agency Tracts saw similar policies from the 1860s, with the 1874 Scheduled Districts Act enabling special rules, but exploitation continued.

Key Legislations and Reforms

The Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1900, enacted under Viceroy Lord Curzon following reports by S.S. Thorburn in 1896 on rural indebtedness, restricted transfers from agricultural to non-agricultural tribes, defining "agriculturists" to protect Jats and Rajputs. This stemmed from fears of unrest, as seen in 1890s agrarian disturbances, and aimed to secure loyal military recruits from Punjab, supplying 60 percent of the Indian Army by 1914. Similar acts followed: the Bundelkhand Alienation of Land Act of 1903 and the United Provinces Act of 1904 under Lieutenant-Governor James La Touche. In Assam, the 1886 Tenancy Act protected ryots but failed tribals, leading to the 1893-1894 Moamaria uprising. The 1918 Bihar and Orissa Tenancy Act attempted reforms post-1907 Champaran Satyagraha led by Mahatma Gandhi against indigo planters' alienation. However, these measures often favored elites; in Punjab, by 1920, alienated land decreased, but inequality persisted among agriculturists.

Impacts on Society and Economy                          www.osmanian.com

Land alienation caused profound socioeconomic disruptions, creating a class of landless laborers and fueling migration. In Bengal, by 1901, 30 percent of peasants were sharecroppers, vulnerable to evictions, as noted in the 1880 Bengal Tenancy Act under Lieutenant-Governor George Campbell, which granted occupancy rights but inadequately. Famines, like 1866 Orissa killing 1 million, were exacerbated by alienated lands' poor productivity. Tribal dispossession sparked identity-based movements; the 1900 Munda Ulgulan under Birsa Munda, who died in custody, demanded restoration of chhota nagpur lands lost post-1858 surveys. Economically, alienation concentrated land, with 5 percent owners holding 50 percent by 1930s, per the 1931 Census. Women suffered, losing customary rights under patrilineal colonial laws from the 1860s. Politically, it bolstered nationalism; the 1885 Bombay Presidency Association protested alienation, influencing the 1919 Rowlatt Act unrest.

Resistance and Movements

Peasant and tribal resistance defined responses, from the 1831 Kol Revolt in Chotanagpur against dikus to the 1921 Moplah Rebellion in Malabar, where Muslim tenants rose against Hindu landlords empowered by 1887 Malabar Compensation for Tenants Improvements Act. In Punjab, the 1907 Canal Colonies agitation under Lala Lajpat Rai opposed allotments favoring non-locals. The 1930s Kisan Sabha, founded in 1929 by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, campaigned against zamindari, culminating in the 1946 Tebhaga movement in Bengal for sharecroppers' rights.

Post-1900 Developments

Twentieth-century policies attempted mitigation; the 1935 Government of India Act devolved land to provinces, enabling reforms like the 1938 United Provinces Tenancy Act under Govind Ballabh Pant, protecting tenants. Yet, alienation continued in agency areas, with the 1940s Telangana Armed Struggle led by communists against Nizam's grantees. World War II from 1939 intensified extraction, worsening distress.