Water-logging Diseases

 

Question: Water-logging Diseases.

Water-logging diseases in colonial India emerged as a dire consequence of ambitious irrigation projects, leading to stagnant water that bred vectors for maladies like malaria and cholera, devastating populations from the mid-19th century. As canals proliferated under figures like Proby Cautley, poor drainage caused soil saturation, fostering epidemics that claimed millions and exposed colonial policy flaws. This period, from the 1830s onset of water-logging in Doab regions to pre-independence health reforms, intertwined environmental mismanagement with public health crises. In conclusion, these diseases highlighted the human cost of imperial development, prompting belated interventions and influencing postcolonial strategies for integrated water and health management.

Causes of Water-logging

Water-logging stemmed from intensive irrigation without adequate drainage, beginning with the Eastern Yamuna Canal reopened in 1830, where seepage raised water tables by 10 feet within decades. The Ganges Canal, completed in 1854 by Proby Cautley, irrigated 1 million acres but caused saturation in Meerut by 1870 due to clay soils impeding percolation. In Punjab, the Bari Doab Canal from 1859 led to logging in 200,000 acres by 1890, as noted by engineer R.G. Kennedy in 1895. Over-irrigation for cash crops like sugarcane, promoted post-1860s, exacerbated issues, with farmers applying excess water under fixed rates. Deforestation for fuel from the 1840s reduced absorption, while siltation blocked natural drains.

Associated Diseases and Outbreaks                          www.osmanian.com

Malaria, spread by Anopheles mosquitoes breeding in pools, surged; in Punjab, cases rose from 5 million in 1900 to 10 million by 1920, per the 1908 Imperial Malaria Conference under Charles Pardey Lukis. The 1892 Bengal epidemic killed 200,000. Cholera, thriving in contaminated water, afflicted logged areas; the 1867 outbreak in Hardwar during Kumbh Mela spread via canals, killing 100,000. The 1907 Punjab epidemic claimed 300,000. Hookworm and filariasis increased; Ronald Ross, discovering malaria transmission in 1897 in Secunderabad, linked it to logging.

Social and Economic Effects

Diseases disproportionately affected laborers; in canal colonies from 1885, migrant workers faced 30 percent mortality. Famines compounded issues; the 1899-1900 scarcity saw cholera kill 1 million in affected zones. Economic losses mounted; in United Provinces, logged lands reduced yields by 50 percent by 1910, per the 1916 Agricultural Commission under James McKenna.

Colonial Responses and Key Figures

Initial denial shifted with Ross's work; the 1901 Malaria Committee under J.W.W. Stephens recommended drainage. The 1920s saw quinine distribution under the 1919 Montford Reforms. Swaminathan Aiyar in Madras pushed anti-malarial campaigns from 1925.

Regional Examples

In Doab, 1830s logging caused 1860s malaria spikes. Punjab's Chenab Colony from 1892 logged 100,000 acres by 1910, with 1918 influenza worsening conditions.

Long-term Impacts

By 1947, 10 million acres were affected, influencing 1950s drainage projects. Health legacies persisted, with malaria cases at 75 million annually until DDT in 1953.

Question: Mining & Minerals – Commercialization of Natural Resources – Displacement - Resistance – North India.

Mining and minerals commercialization in colonial North India transformed natural resources into imperial assets, driving economic growth but causing widespread displacement and resistance from the mid-19th century. Beginning with coal extraction in Bengal around 1774, British policies under figures like John Sumner monetized deposits, displacing communities and sparking uprisings. This era, from early surveys to pre-independence nationalization debates, exemplified resource plunder amid industrialization. In conclusion, the commercialization fueled colonial prosperity at the cost of ecological harm and social unrest, shaping postcolonial mining regulations and ongoing conflicts over resource rights.

Early Exploration and Commercialization

Mining commenced with coal in Raniganj in 1774 by John Sumner and Suetonius Heatly, granted monopoly by Warren Hastings. The 1835 Coal Committee under Lord Bentinck promoted commercialization, leading to Carr Tagore Company's 1836 operations. Iron in Kumaon surveyed in 1855 by William Sowerby, but low quality limited exploitation until 1879 Birbhum Iron Works.

Displacement Dynamics

Extraction displaced thousands; in Jharia coalfields developed from 1894 by Thomas Oldham, Geological Survey founder in 1851, 50,000 were evicted by 1910 for railways and mines. In Bihar, mica mining from 1890s under Chrestien Company displaced Koderma tribals.

Resistance Movements

The 1894 Jharia strikes protested wages; the 1912 Santhal unrest in Asansol targeted displacement. The 1920 Tata strike in Jamshedpur, founded in 1907 by Jamsetji Tata, demanded rights.

Economic Impacts                          www.osmanian.com

Coal output rose from 1 million tons in 1880 to 20 million by 1920, fueling railways post-1853. Minerals like saltpetre from Bihar exported from 1800s.

Environmental and Social Costs

Deforestation for mine props caused erosion; health issues like pneumoconiosis affected workers from 1900s.

Post-1900 Developments

The 1923 Mines Act under Viceroy Reading improved safety but ignored displacement, leading to 1930s AITUC campaigns.