Question: Write about Ajantha Caves?

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Question: Write about Ajantha Caves?

Answer: After centuries of neglect and desertion, the caves were accidentally discovered by John Smith, a member of a British hunting party in 1819 CE. With growing popularity within a few years of its rediscovery the once nondescript ravine became a soft target for unscrupulous treasure hunters. Before long, however, Indian antiquarian, archaeologist and architectural historian James Fergusson took a keen interest in their study, preservation and categorisation. It was he who commissioned Major Robert Gill to make reproductions of the paintings and together with James Burgess also numbered the caves.

 

Major Gill worked on 30 large scale canvases from 1844 to 1863 CE. These were displayed at the Crystal Palace in Sydenham, however, most of these paintings were soon destroyed in a fire in 1866 CE. John Griffiths, principal of the Bombay School of Art, was next commissioned to make copies of the paintings from 1872 CE onwards. It took him thirteen years to complete the project, but disaster struck yet again and well over a hundred canvases were incinerated in 1875 CE at the Imperial Institute.

Cave 9: Excavated in the 1st century BCE, this is one of the oldest chaitya (prayer halls) in Ajanta. The nave is flanked by aisles on either side separated by a row of 23 pillars with the stupa at the far end. The ceiling of the nave is vaulted but that of the aisles is flat. The stupa stands on a high cylindrical base at the centre of the apse. Signs of wooden rafters and beams on the ceiling, façade and tapered octagonal pillars show an adherence to the contemporary wooden architectural style. The paintings here belong to two different eras - the first being at the time of excavation while a repainting of the cave interior was carried out in the later phase of activity, around the 5th century CE.

Cave 16: It is one of the largest excavations located at the centre of the arc of the ravine. An inscription records it to be a gift of the imperial Prime Minister Varahadeva. The colossal hall is surrounded by 14 cells. The garbha griha contains a sculpted figure of Buddha in pralamba padasana mudra. Some of the finest examples of murals are preserved here. Narratives include various Jataka stories such as Hasti, Maha Ummagga, Maha Sutasoma; other depictions include conversion of Nanda, miracle of Sravasti, dream of Maya and other incidents from the life of Buddha.

 : An exemplary collection of paintings and architectural motifs is preserved in this vihara. Excavated under the benefaction of local feudatory Lord Upendragupta, this monastery typically consists of a pillared verandah with cells on either side, a large central hall supported by 20 octagonal pillars and bounded by 17 cells, an antechamber and the garbha griha with an enshrined image of Buddha.

 

Among the murals the profoundly poignant illustration of Chhaddanta Jataka, exquisite ornamentation of pillars and pilasters, the sublime depiction of graceful beauty of a lady looking at herself in a mirror and the evocative retelling of subjugation of Nalagari by Buddha are some of the highlights. Many Jataka stories are depicted here including Chhaddanta, Mahakapi (in two versions), Hasti, Hamsa, Vessantara, Maha Sutasoma, Sarabha miga, Machchha, Mati Posaka, Sama, Mahisa, Valahass, Sibi, Ruru and Nigrodhamiga.

 

The Rashtrakuta dynasty (c. 753–982 CE) was one of the most powerful and influential dynasties in medieval India, primarily ruling over parts of present-day Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, with their capital at Manyakheta (modern Malkhed). The socio-economic conditions during the Rashtrakutas' reign were shaped by their centralized governance, prosperous economy, and cultural and religious patronage. Here is an overview of the socio-economic conditions under the Rashtrakutas:

1. Political Structure and Governance:

• Centralized Monarchy: The Rashtrakuta kings exercised strong centralized control, which allowed for the efficient administration of their vast empire. The king, as the supreme ruler, was supported by a hierarchical bureaucracy that included ministers, local governors, and military commanders.
• Feudal System: The Rashtrakuta empire had a feudal structure, where land was granted to noble families and military officers in exchange for loyalty, military service, and tribute. This system encouraged the growth of a powerful land-owning aristocracy who wielded significant local influence.
• Revenue and Taxes: The Rashtrakutas implemented a well-organized system of taxation to support the state and the military. Taxes were levied on land, agriculture, and trade, and there was an emphasis on ensuring that local chiefs collected these taxes on behalf of the central government. The agrarian economy was the backbone of their revenue system.

2. Agriculture and Land Economy:

• Agricultural Prosperity: Agriculture was the primary economic activity under the Rashtrakutas, with most people engaged in farming. The fertile lands of the Deccan Plateau supported the cultivation of rice, millets, sugarcane, cotton, and spices. The Rashtrakutas were known for their support of irrigation systems, which helped increase agricultural output.
• Irrigation Systems: The rulers encouraged the development of large-scale irrigation projects, including tanks, canals, and wells, to support agriculture. These projects were crucial in ensuring the productivity of crops, particularly in the drier regions.
• Land Grants: The Rashtrakutas granted land grants to Brahmins, temples, and military officers. These grants were often in the form of agricultural lands and served both as a means of securing loyalty and as a way to support religious and social institutions. The land was generally worked by peasants, who paid taxes to the landowners or local rulers.

3. Trade and Commerce:

• Domestic Trade: The Rashtrakuta kingdom was strategically located between northern and southern India, which facilitated both internal and external trade. The Deccan Plateau region served as an important trading hub for goods such as textiles, spices, salt, jewelry, metalwork, and wood.
• External Trade: The Rashtrakutas had significant commercial ties with Arab traders through the western coast, especially in the port cities like Brahmapur and Kalyani. They traded goods such as pearls, ivory, spices, cotton fabrics, and gold. This fostered a rich merchant class that engaged in both land and sea trade.
• Coins and Currency: The Rashtrakutas issued a variety of coins, including gold coins (called Hala-kadi or kadi-panams), silver coins, and copper coins. The use of currency supported trade and economic exchange, and the issuance of coins demonstrated the centralization of state power.

4. Craftsmanship and Industries:

• Textiles: The Rashtrakutas were known for the production of high-quality cotton and silk textiles, which were highly valued in both domestic and international markets.
• Metalwork: The production of iron and copper tools and weapons was a significant industry. The iron-working technology, particularly in regions like Karnataka, was highly advanced during the Rashtrakuta period.
• Stone and Architecture: The Rashtrakutas were patrons of architecture and sculpture, and they are particularly known for their architectural contributions, such as the Ellora Caves (especially the Kailasa Temple, which is a monolithic rock-cut temple). The period saw a flourishing of temple construction and sculptural art, which involved skilled craftsmen and artisans.

5. Social Structure:

• Caste System: Like other Indian kingdoms of the time, the Rashtrakutas followed the traditional caste system, which was deeply entrenched in society. The society was divided into varnas (four main social classes: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras), with Brahmins and Kshatriyas occupying the higher rungs of the social hierarchy.
• Role of Women: While women were generally subject to patriarchal norms, their status varied depending on their caste and region. Elite women, particularly those in royal and noble families, held some influence, although they were often confined to domestic roles.
• Slavery: There is evidence of slavery in Rashtrakuta society, where individuals from lower castes or foreign prisoners of war were subjected to forced labor. However, slavery was not as widespread or institutionalized as in some other historical periods.

6. Religion and Culture:

• Hinduism and Temples: Hinduism was the dominant religion under the Rashtrakutas. The rulers were great patrons of Hindu temples, and numerous temples were constructed during their reign. Temples served as centers of social, cultural, and economic life, and the Rashtrakutas provided grants to temples and Brahmins.
• Buddhism and Jainism: The Rashtrakutas also patronized Buddhism and Jainism, reflecting the religious pluralism of the empire. Jainism, in particular, flourished under their rule, with many Jain temples and inscriptions from the period still surviving.
• Patronage of Art and Literature: The Rashtrakutas were strong patrons of art, literature, and education. Many great scholars, poets, and philosophers thrived under their patronage, and the dynasty is credited with fostering a rich cultural environment. The famous Kannada poet Ranna and the Sanskrit scholar Amoghavarsha I were key figures of this period.
• Religious Tolerance: The Rashtrakuta rulers, especially Amoghavarsha I, were known for their religious tolerance. They supported various sects of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and allowed religious freedom in their empire.

7. Decline of the Rashtrakuta Empire:

• The decline of the Rashtrakuta empire in the 10th century led to the fragmentation of the empire into smaller states. This was partly due to the weakening of central authority, external invasions, and internal rebellions. The Rashtrakutas’ power eventually diminished, giving rise to new dynasties, such as the Chalukyas and Cholas, which took control of their former territories.

Summary:

The socio-economic conditions under the Rashtrakutas were characterized by a robust agrarian economy, a thriving trade network, and significant advancements in craftsmanship, architecture, and literature. The centralized political structure, combined with a feudal system of governance, allowed for economic growth and cultural prosperity, particularly in areas like agriculture, trade, and religious patronage. However, there were also challenges, such as the persistence of the caste system, the exploitation of the lower classes, and the eventual fragmentation of the empire. Despite these challenges, the Rashtrakuta period remains one of the most notable in the history of medieval India.